Maroc - EURASIAREVIEW.COM - A la une - 02/Sep 22:35

Rekindling The ‘Spirit Of Cordoba’ – Analysis

The “Spirit of Córdoba" refers to the rich cultural, historical, and intellectual heritage of Córdoba, Spain, which was once a significant center of learning and multicultural exchange during the Islamic Golden Age. (1) This theme is often explored through various forms of art, architecture, and education, emphasizing the city's contributions to philosophy, sciences, and arts. Prominent works and initiatives, such as those promoted by the University of Córdoba, aim to reflect, investigate, and disseminate this heritage. What is the “Spirit of Cordoba”? The “Spirit of Cordoba" refers to a cultural and intellectual renaissance that took place in Cordoba, Spain, particularly during the period of al-Andalus. It symbolizes the harmonious coexistence (2) and collaboration of different cultures, including Muslim, Jewish, and Christian communities, leading to significant advancements in areas such as philosophy, science, and art. (3) What is the “Spirit of Cordoba”, in principle? It's a story that unfolds between the 8th and 12th centuries, during the takeover of Andalusia by the Muslim world. A caliphate was established in Cordoba for four centuries. During these four centuries, not everything was easy, but there were at least two centuries in which the three great religions of the time - Jewish, Christian and Muslim - really came together. It was a moment of sharing and exchange that made a huge cultural, artistic, intellectual and philosophical advance. (4) Map of the Caliphate of Cordoba (Wikimedia Commons) From the early 8th to the late 15th century, Jews, Christians and Muslims shared a common civilization in medieval Spain. This cohabitation, sometimes forced, also gave rise to a movement to translate Arabic texts from the court of Baghdad into Castilian, Hebrew and finally Latin for the Western Christian courts. (5) At a time when communities lived side by side, forbidding mixing or proselytizing, and not hesitating to make offenders pay a heavy price for breaking these social rules, the translation workshops were a place of exchange, fraternity and mixing, where the subtle nuances extracted from discussions were worked out. The mission of translating texts inherited from the Muslim empire, of which Andalusian Spain was an integral part, enabled the Christian West to become familiar with Greek texts before the Renaissance. (6) More than in any other era, logic - that branch of philosophy concerned with the essence of things and their truth, which owes its nomenclature to Aristotle - spread to serve an essential question: the confrontation between science and religion. Like Aristotle, the philosophers who studied syllogisms were also astronomers, physicians and mathematicians. Like Averroes, they could also be cadi (judge), bringing together all this knowledge for the benefit of the schools of Muslim law. (7) In the East, and later in the West, the period from the 9th to the 12th-13th centuries was one of compromise. The contemporary idea of the medieval period is still accompanied by a number of beliefs linked to a few reactionary Christian texts, such as that of the flatness of the earth. What is true for the mythologies of the time is no longer a reality for astronomers since at least Ptolemy, who drew his inspiration from Aristotle and combined it with the Greeks' knowledge of plane and spherical trigonometry, which he synthesized. From the Egyptian province of Alexandria, where he made his observations between 127 and 141 CE, the polymath, whose writings would become the reference for ancient and medieval astronomers, wrote about the earth's rotundity. According to Hipparchus' theory, the Earth is an immobile ball at the center of the solar system; a planet where the ecumene, the inhabited space of the Earth, is divided into three or four parts. Each population has its own specific characteristics, such as its geographical location and climate. Muslim era The Muslims conquered Cordoba city in 711. It became the main administrative and political center of the kingdom of al-Andalus, which included the territories of the Iberian Peninsula and Septimania under Muslim rule. Several dynasties succeeded one another during this period, and the political status of the territory changed. (8)  From 756, Cordoba was the capital of the Emirate of Cordoba (9), founded by the Umayyad prince Abd al-Rahman I. But from 929, it became the capital of an independent caliphate, after Emir Abd al-Rahman III broke all ties with the Abbasids in Baghdad and proclaimed himself caliph. The reigns of Abd al-Rahman III (912-961), his son al-Hakam II (961-976) and the hâjib (vizier) al-Mansur ibn Abi Amir (981-1002) were the most glorious period in the city's history, although the caliphs tended to neglect it in favor of their new capital, Madinat az-Zahrâ’, founded in 936. (10) Throughout the 10th century, Cordoba rivaled Baghdad in size, population and, above all, magnificence. At its peak around the year 1000, Cordoba was one of the most densely populated cities in the West, with estimates ranging from 250,000 to 500,000 inhabitants. The city would have boasted over six hundred mosques and nine hundred public baths. (11) The reign of Almanzor at the end of the 10th century saw the construction of the palatine city of Madinat az-Zahirâ’ (Radiant City) to the east, opposite the caliphal city of Madinat az-Zahrâ’ to the west. Between these two centres of power, Cordoba developed into a series of suburbs and districts. Indeed, Cordoba was at the heart of a complex agglomeration. The literal city of Cordoba, the medina, which the Arabs called Qurtubah, was surrounded by an enclosure, beyond which developed unfortified suburbs called djanib or rabad. The medina itself was the only fortified part of the city. From 785 to 987, the Muslims built the Great Mosque,  (12) which remains the city's principal monument. The geographer al-Idrisi, writing two hundred years later, tells us that the medina was divided into five towns, each enclosed by a wall. The two palatine complexes (Madinat Az-Zahrâ’ to the west for the Caliph and Madinat az-Zahîrâ’ to the east for Almanzor) formed true cities within the city and were two of these five cities. There was also a Jewish quarter. To the east of the Great Mosque lay the souk district. (13) To the east of the medina lay djanib known in Spanish as axarquía, a word of Arabic origin ("ash-sharqiyah") meaning "eastern side": this was a highly developed suburb, made up of numerous quarters, including the Mozarabic quarter. Christians and Jews were fairly numerous in Cordoba, but the city seems to have been one of the most Islamicized in Andalusia during the Caliphate period. (14) To the west lay another suburb towards Madinat az-Zahrâ’, the "western side" built from the Emirate period onwards. It was densely occupied during the Caliphate period, but lost importance with the Civil War (1011-1031), disappearing abruptly with the ravages of the Almohad conquest. To the south, on the other side of the river, the Secunda ar-Rabad, the "second suburb", had developed. (15) Cordoba had a strong craft industry: leather (Cordovan leather is famous: the word "cobbler" derives from "Cordoba") and textiles. Another of the city's major industries was paper and book production: Cordoba was undoubtedly one of the most cultured cities in the world at the time. A systematic effort was undertaken by Caliph al-Hakam II to build up a library containing all the capital works, old and new, known at the time. A network of scouts, collectors and copyists, spread throughout the Islamic world, brought to Cordoba a fabulous collection of works, equal in importance to that of the Abbasid caliphs. The figure of 400,000 volumes is quoted. In Cordoba itself, an army of scribes and bookbinders looked after these treasures. (16) Between 1009 and 1031, the caliphate collapsed and was divided into more than a dozen small states, the taifas. Cordoba became the capital of one of these states, which fell to the Emir of Seville in 1069. Occupied by the Almoravids in 1086, then by the Almohads in 1149, the city ceased to be the capital and began its long decline. The city is home to numerous archaeological remains. Many date back to antiquity, mainly to Roman times. The Roman bridge of Cordoba crosses the Guadalquivir River opposite the mosque-cathedral; it was restored in the 2000s. A Roman theater is preserved beneath the building of Cordoba's today Archaeological and Ethnological Museum. Cordoba's main Roman temple is located to the northeast of the city, next to the ayuntamiento headquarters. The city also contains a Roman mausoleum preserved on the Paseo de la Victoria and remains housed in the intercity bus station. The Cercadilla archaeological site houses the remains of one of the palaces of the Roman emperor Maximian. In addition, several of the city's museums and buildings display today ancient Roman collections (including numerous mosaics) as well as ancient Iberian art. (17) Medieval remains abound. Muslim ruins abound: minarets preserved in churches, and Arab baths. A few kilometers from Cordoba are the ruins of Madinat az-Zahrâ’, a city dating back to the 10th century, the time of the caliphate. Another notable archaeological site near the city is the Munyat al-Rummaniya palace, also dating from the 10th century. For the famous Moroccan cartographer al-Idrisi, he describes the people of Cordoba, then, in the following terms: (18) “The city of Cordoba is the capital and metropolis of al-Andalus, and the seat of the Muslim caliphate. The qualities of the people of Cordoba are too famous to need mentioning, and their virtues too obvious to ignore. They combine splendor and beauty. They are the region's greatest scholars and models of piety. They are renowned for the purity of their doctrine, the probity of their earnings, the beauty of their appearance, whether in dress or mount, the elevation of their interest in assemblies and ranks, and their mastery of food and drink. They are, moreover, gifted with the most amiable character and the most praiseworthy manners. Cordoba has never lacked illustrious scholars or distinguished characters. Its merchants are wealthy and well-to-do, with sumptuous mounts. They are driven by noble ambition.” Cordoba, a city of dialogue and cultural interchange Cordoba,  during the Islamic period, was renowned as a city of dialogue and cultural interchange, particularly under the authority of the Omayyad dynasty. It was a hub where different cultures and religions coexisted, although this benefitted mainly the elite class of the city. The atmosphere fostered intellectual and spiritual exchanges, making Cordoba a significant center of learning and religious discourse. (20) Cordoba was a crucial center during the Islamic Golden Age, particularly from the 8th to the 10th centuries. It was one of the most advanced cities in the world at the time. (21) It attracted scholars, philosophers, and scientists from across the Islamic world and beyond. The city was famous for its libraries, including the great library of Caliph Al-Hakam II, which housed hundreds of thousands of manuscripts. (22) The Great Mosque of Cordoba (Mezquita), a stunning example of Islamic architecture, symbolized the city’s prowess in art and design. The city also featured advanced urban planning, with paved streets, running water, and public baths, showcasing the high level of sophistication in its infrastructure. (23) Al-Andalus, particularly during the Umayyad Caliphate and later periods, was a center of learning and cultural exchange. Its contributions to science and philosophy were profound and significantly influenced European thought, especially during the Middle Ages. (24) During the golden age of Cordoba, Muslim scientists like al-Khwarizmi (780-850), often referred to as the "father of algebra," whose works introduced the concepts of algebra (from the Arabic "al-jabr") and algorithms, shaping the development of mathematical thought was well-known in this city. The introduction of Arabic numerals, including the concept of zero, improved calculations and record-keeping. Scholars such as az-Zarqali, from Cordoba, (1027-1100) created tables that helped in predicting celestial events and improved navigation. The establishment of observatories in places like Toledo facilitated advanced astronomical observations and studies. In medicine the works of Avicenna (Ibn Sina) (980-1037) "The Canon of Medicine," synthesized earlier medical knowledge from Greek, Roman, and Persian sources and became a foundational text in both the Islamic world and Europe. In Pharmacology: Scholars improved the understanding of medicinal plants and prepared early pharmacopeia. In Geography, Al-Idrisi’s (1100-1165) work "Tabula Rogeriana" was one of the most detailed world maps of the time, aiding explorers and traders. In Philosophical Synthesis, thinkers like Ibn Rushd (Averroes) (1126-1198) of Cordoba tried to reconcile Aristotelian philosophy with Islamic teachings, influencing later Christian scholars, particularly in the Renaissance. Whereas Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and al-Farabi contributed significantly to metaphysics and ethics, impacting both Muslim and European philosophical thought. (25) In Ethics and Politics, writings on ethics by figures like al-Farabi (872-950) explored the nature of virtue, the ideal state, and governance, which were later discussed by European political philosophers. In literature and poetry, the flourishing of Arabic literature included philosophical poetry and prose that examined the human condition, spirituality, and ethics. Notable poets include Ibn Zaydun (1003-1071) and Ibn Arabi (1165-1240). (26) The intellectual achievements of al-Andalus made their way into Europe primarily through translations and the movement of scholars. The translation of Arabic texts into Latin during the 12th century in places like Toledo (The Toledo School of Translators (Spanish: Escuela de Traductores de Toledo)) helped kickstart the European Renaissance, bridging classical knowledge with new ideas from the Islamic world. (27) Al-Andalus was instrumental in preserving and expanding upon classical knowledge while producing original contributions that laid the groundwork for future developments in various fields. From the earliest days of Islam, exchanges in all fields of science and knowledge were studied in a climate of great religious and intellectual tolerance. (28) This state of mind continued throughout the Muslim conquest of Spain. It was at this time, moreover, that the works of the Greek philosophers, in particular Aristotle, were translated into Arabic for the first time, despite the disapproval of the religious authorities. The initiators of this great intellectual expedition were Ibn Masarra, a pantheist, Ibn Hazm (29) -  in the 10th century - and the Jew Ibn Gabirol, who professed a neoplatonic philosophy. The 12th century was marked by Ibn Yahia as sayegh (Avempace) and his disciple Ibn Tufayl, whose work had a strong impact among Christians. And who hasn't heard the name of Ibn Rochd (Averroes, 1126-1198), whose many works have been preserved and who was the contemporary of the eminent Jewish philosopher Maimonides (1135-1204) nicknamed the “second Moise”, (30) physician, Talmudist theologian and philosopher? Among the many historians and geographers of this period, we'd like to mention the best-known: Ibn Al-khatib (1313- 1374) Abderrahmane Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406), (31) author of a fundamental work of his time: al-Muqaddimah (Prolegomena), Al-Idrisi and Ibn Batuta (1304-1368). The Spirit of Cordoba reflected in the arts and architecture Today, everyone is familiar with Andalusian art and its originality; its beauty is still a source of curiosity and wonder. The building of monuments began as early as the 8th century and continued until the 9th century. Some great monuments stand out: the Mosque of Cordoba, (32) the palace of Madinat az-Zahrâ’ that the Khalif Abderrahmane III built for his favorite cocubine Zahrâ’, where he maintained a brilliant court of the elite of all faiths. The architecture was characterized by a series of pavilions laid out around inner courtyards, which became the standard example of the Andalusian patio: the Khalifal residence was lavishly decorated with stone carvings, marble mosaics and elaborate stucco work; it represents the first artistic and architectural manifestation of Hispano-Moorish art. (33) Then there's the Alhambra in Granada and the Giralda minaret in Seville, one of the finest achievements of the Islamic world. And what can we say about the gardens, sprinkled with water in summer and winter, that have inspired so many romances? A new type of urban society was born. It was at this time that the city's sewage system was created, that hygiene was developed through the multiplication of baths, and that the mosque regained its original role as a place for social and educational gatherings. Trade routes were built or improved and made safer, establishing various links across the peninsula or joining the major international trade routes thanks to the construction or enlargement of ports towards the African coast, which were extended by caravan routes to Africa or the Orient. Agriculture was not to be outdone. Irrigation canals became more efficient thanks to the invention of the “noriyah” bucket wheel. Europe discovered many new plants, such as apricots, pomegranates, melons, artichokes, eggplants, asparagus, chicory, rice and sugar cane, and enjoyed many of the dishes that still grace tables today: meatballs with cumin, couscous, empanadas (a dish that can be made with dough and leftover meat or chicken) and vegetables, fish baked with spices, stuffed eggplants, and so on. The architecture of Cordoba's Mosque is a fusion of styles and techniques The architecture of Cordoba's Mosque is a fusion of styles and techniques that reflect the influences of the different cultures that dominated the region. It is considered one of Andalusia's most important historical monuments, and an outstanding example of the architecture of the period. Islamic and Christian architecture coexist in the same building. As well as being one of Spain's greatest Islamic legacies. (34) The evolution of the architecture of the Cordoba Mosque goes from the 8th century to the 10th century, via the 16th century, to become a cathedral after the Christian reconquest of the city in 1236. During the Muslim period in Spain and over the centuries, numerous modifications were made to the Cordoba Mosque, linked to changes in the power of the rulers, and later, to enlargement and renovation work. Tiled roofs of the Mosque-Cathedral of Córdoba. 8th century Islamic architecture of Al-Andalus — in Cordoba, Andalusia, Spain (public domain photo) The mosque is characterized by its large size and complex architectural design. Originally, the mosque had a rectangular structure, with a prayer hall with horseshoe arches and a central courtyard. However, after its transformation into a cathedral (known today as the Cathedral of the Assumption of the Virgin), various elements of Christian architecture were added, such as the triumphal arch of the Virgin, the chapels, the choir and the transept. The history of the Cordoba Mosque (when Cordoba was the capital of Muslim Spain) goes back a long way. It was extended three times by successive caliphs, and new naves and chapels were added until it reached its current size. Among the most notable additions to the mosque-cathedral are the main chapel and the royal chapel, built in the Baroque style during the 18th century. During the 19th century, several side chapels were added and the main façade was renovated. Finally, in 1236, during the Reconquest, Cordoba was taken by Christian forces from Castile and Spain. The mosque was also transformed into a Christian cathedral. Modifications include a central nave that crosses the original structure, a Renaissance cathedral transept in the center of the building, and the former minaret transformed into a belfry that has been completely remodeled. (35) The prayer space is a large central courtyard surrounded by a winter garden, with a forest of columns, marble and granite floors and double arcades. It also features a mihrâb. The decoration of the mosque is eye-catching, with inscriptions representing verses from the Qur’ân, as well as magnificent mosaics and marble sculptures. This is the part of the mosque that indicates the direction of Mecca (it was enlarged in the 10th century). Because of all the extensions and modifications made to the architecture of the Cordoba Mosque, it's important to mention that several of them are remarkable architectural features that make it unique: Hypostyle design: The Cordoba Mosque has a hypostyle structure, meaning that it features a large number of columns supporting the ceilings and creating a series of naves or aisles. Horseshoe arch: Horseshoe arches are a distinctive feature of Islamic architecture and are present throughout the Cordoba Mosque. They are horseshoe-shaped and characterized by their elegant curves. Materials: The Cordoba Mosque is built mainly of brick and stone, and some of the materials used in its construction were recycled from old Roman and Visigoth buildings. Ornamentation: The Cordoba Mosque is decorated with intricate ornamental details throughout the building, including carved plaster, gold, silver, copper and magnificent mosaics and tiles were created. Patio de los Naranjos: The Cordoba Mosque also features a beautiful courtyard known as the Patio de los Naranjos, which includes a central fountain surrounded by orange and cypress trees. Christian chapel: In the 16th century, a Christian chapel was built in the center of the Cordoba Mosque, adding another layer of architecture and symbolism to this impressive edifice. The architecture of Cordoba's mosque is undoubtedly one of the most remarkable in Andalusia and one of the most important in the world, once considered a wonder of the world by Muslims and Christians alike. It's a unique example of how different cultures and religions can coexist and create something beautiful together. Averroes, the light of Aristotle shines in Cordoba Interest in Aristotle's works was accompanied by a focus on the commentaries of Moses Maimonides, the renowned Jewish philosopher, and Ibn Rushd of Cordoba (1126-1198), the intellectual physician, philosopher, theologian and jurist known in the West as Averroes. Averroes' learned commentaries, which explain and analyze Aristotle's thought, were necessary for medieval scholars to understand the complex thought of the Greek philosopher. Averroes is a recognized authority who guides the understanding of these texts, not a subordinate source. (36) But the Malikite jurist's philosophical “mission” is quite different: he must bridge the gap between faith and reason, between revelation and philosophy, in an Islamic way.  Against the axiom that philosophy runs counter to revelation, or even leads it astray. Our scholar tries to understand how it is possible for philosophy to say one thing and revelation its opposite. He sought to reconcile the two, and ended up subscribing to the canon of reason, which put him at odds with the Islamic theologians of his day. (37) Between 1168 and 1198, the Andalusian scholar's commentaries covered almost all of Aristotle's works, including his Physics, the treatise on the soul, on heaven, and his Metaphysics. (38) The words of Averroes mingled with those of the Athenian philosopher according to the scheme that he initiated and whose name history has retained: that of the Peripatetic school. (39) It sometimes takes centuries for the thought of an individual, however enlightened, to reappear in luminous particles to enlighten other minds. Aristotle's was no exception to the rule: After falling out of favor in the realm of spiritual and conceptual thought, even under the reign of the Mutazilite Abbasid sultan al-Ma'mūn (786-833), Aristotle's thought enjoyed extraordinary renown among Western Christians, notably via Thomas Aquinas, (40) who used his teachings to show that reason and faith complement each other. Averroes, the rational scholar who defied the traditional vindictiveness of al-Ghazālī (1058-1111) (41)  or prevented a Neo-Platonist interpretation that suited the intelligentsia in power, placed the learned but seditious disciple of Plato in a literary and scientific sphere. In 1142, Peter the Venerable, Grand Abbot of Cluny Abbey, the most powerful and important abbey in Latin Europe, visited Toledo and conceived the idea of a systematic refutation of the Muslim religion, which he considered heretical and errant. With the help of Robert of Chester, who agreed to translate the Qur’ân into Latin, he set about gaining access to the Qur’ânic text in order to build a polemical case against it. Translations of texts from the Muslim tradition also provided grounds for virulently criticizing the Muslim tradition, without dissociating it from the culture of different communities. At the end of the 11th century, the Crusades were aimed at liberating Jerusalem from the Muslim presence, and the “deliverance” of al-Andalus became, for Christians, an appendix to the intellectual edifice that was the vision of a society in which Christianity was the only possible option. A polarized theory developed, with Christianity representing good and Islam evil. The arrival of the traditionalist Almoravids from North Africa facilitated this limited dichotomous vision. In the 13th century, Alfonso X, nicknamed the Wise One, ascended the throne of Castile. He created a new body of work in Spain, notably the Cantigas de Santa Maria, an illuminated manuscript depicting scenes of life in 13th-century Spain. Some of the miniatures depict Toledo's translators - Jews, Christians and Muslims - working together in the same workshops. (42) Cordoba, the eternal spirit of Convivencia (43) In historic Cordoba, particularly during the medieval period under Muslim rule (from the 8th to the 13th centuries), different cultures coexisted through a combination of factors. (44) Al-Andalus was marked by a level of religious tolerance that was relatively advanced for its time. Muslims, Jews, and Christians lived in close proximity, and there was a degree of respect for each other's beliefs and practices. While there were tensions at times, many communities thrived through coexistence. (45) The city of Cordoba in Andalusia has a rich multicultural past. The concept of multiculturalism refers to the coexistence (46) of foreign cultures with a national culture. Interculturalism, on the other hand, aims to raise awareness of the cultural diversity of peoples and civilizations. Cordoba is known as "The City of Three Cultures" because it was a historical center where Christian, Jewish, and Muslim cultures coexisted for a significant period, particularly during the 12th century. The city features important monuments like the Mosque of the Omayyads, a medieval synagogue, and other architectural remnants that reflect this rich cultural diversity. Cordoba, city of three cultures, is famous for its thinkers. The three main philosophers born in Cordoba are Seneca, Averroes and Maimonides, major philosophers of Roman, Islamic and Jewish civilization. (47) The interactions between these communities led to a vibrant cultural exchange. Knowledge, literature, philosophy, and scientific advancements were shared among Muslims, Jews, and Christians, enriching each culture. For example, Jewish scholars like Maimonides flourished in this environment, contributing to philosophy and medicine. (48) Cordoba was a major center for trade and commerce. Economic interdependence created opportunities for collaboration among different cultural groups. Various communities engaged in professions such as trade, banking, and craftsmanship, which fostered mutual respect and cooperation. The political system under Muslim rule often allowed for a degree of autonomy for different religious communities. The dhimmî status provided non-Muslims with protection and certain rights in exchange for paying a tax, which encouraged a more peaceful coexistence. (49) The city became a renowned intellectual hub, with institutions like the Great Mosque of Cordoba serving as centers for learning. Scholars collaborated across cultural boundaries, leading to significant developments in fields such as medicine, mathematics, astronomy, and philosophy.Joint celebrations and cultural events also played a role in fostering harmony. Festivals often included contributions from various communities, showcasing the rich tapestry of coexistence in daily life. The combination of religious tolerance, cultural exchange, economic cooperation, political structures, and intellectual collaboration contributed to a unique environment in historic Cordoba where diverse cultures not only coexisted but also thrived together, creating a legacy that influenced Europe and beyond. (50) Cordoba, the City of Three Cultures Cordoba is proud to be the city of three cultures: (51) the Umayyad Mosque, the medieval synagogue and the palace of the Christian kings are the jewels of its architectural heritage. These three monuments will serve as a common thread in the evocation of Jewish, Christian and Muslim Cordoba, where the three cultures coexisted (53) more or less harmoniously and fruitfully depending on the era. (54) Christine Mazzoli-Guintard describes the city of Cordoba, as a place of Convivencia: (55) “In 10th-11th-century Cordoba, there were many places of convivencia, from the afniya of the neighborhood mosques to the great mosque and the market, the essential meeting point remaining the ras¯ıf at the Porte de la Azuda. An examination of these places often gives rise to an ideal convivencia, in the form of a city that brings people together and enables them to live together harmoniously, while a study of the forms of social ties reveals the gap between the imaginary of conviviality and the day-to-day experience of it, where the streets are often a place where people live together in harmony where streets are sometimes dangerous thoroughfares, where squares are places of revolt, and where most of the female population is excluded from living together. To what extent does this city of multiple living spaces separate as much as it unites? Doesn't convivencia ultimately prompt us to question the modes of urban segregation?” The study of Cordoba in the Middle Ages (8th - 15th century) shows how civilizations came into contact, forged relationships and experienced conflicts in an area of Jewish, Christian and Muslim monotheisms. Looking at the medieval city of Cordoba (55) allows us to: - emphasize the persistence of the circulation of goods, people and ideas in this Mediterranean area. - demonstrate the coexistence (Convivencia) of Muslim, Christian and Jewish communities. (56) Cordoba's Judea shows the gradual respect of distinction of otherness. The case of Maimonides (57) (Saladin's physician, representative of the community to the sultan. He wrote the Guide of the Preplexed (58) in Arabic) is an interesting way of showing the links between people, (59) and of emphasizing medieval societies. (60) For Ross Brann, Arabic was the lingua-franca of all Andalusians for whatever creed and culture in his essay entitled:” Reflexiones sobre el árabe y la identidad literaria de los judíos de al-Andalus. “He argues: (61) “This essay attempts to re-conceptualize aspects of the cultural universe of Andalusi Jewish literary intellectuals. It questions the methods and terms with which scholars engage a critical manifestation of our subject across the disciplines: the arabization of the Jews of al-Andalus and its implication for their literary history and cultural identity. Asserting that the Jews’spoken language cannot be isolated from the world of culture within which it is situated, I refer to four types of evidence: Arabic works by Jews directed to a general audience; reports of «close cultural encounters» among Jews and Muslims in al-Andalus; Jewish literary activity conducted in Arabic; and most significantly, the internalization of Arabo-Islamic paradigms in the articulation of Andalusi Jewish culture. Rather than viewing thejews’ arabization as a sign of external influence or assimilation, the essay suggests it can be taken as evidence of a certain cultural convergence within Andalusi society.” Cordoba, (62) during the Islamic period, was renowned as a city of dialogue and cultural interchange, particularly under the authority of the Omayyad dynasty. It was a hub where different cultures and religions coexisted, although this benefitted mainly the elite class of the city. The atmosphere fostered intellectual and spiritual exchanges, making Cordoba a significant center of learning and religious discourse. Interior of Mezquita de Córdoba, Spain Cordoba was a crucial center during the Islamic Golden Age, particularly from the 8th to the 10th centuries. It was one of the most advanced cities in the world at the time. It attracted scholars, philosophers, and scientists from across the Islamic world and beyond. The city was famous for its libraries, including the great library of Caliph Al-Hakam II, which housed hundreds of thousands of manuscripts. The Great Mosque of Cordoba (Mezquita), a stunning example of Islamic architecture, symbolized the city’s prowess in art and design. The city also featured advanced urban planning, with paved streets, running water, and public baths, showcasing the high level of sophistication in its infrastructure. Cordoba, the city of human knowledge Known as the City of Science, Cordoba was one of the largest cities in the Muslim world in the Middle Ages. A major center of science and culture, the city played a key role in the intellectual Renaissance of medieval Europe. Many scientists lived in Cordoba during the Golden Age, so the city developed very rapidly. Scientists went to Cordoba only to benefit from its research centers. Scientists like Abbas ibn Firnas (810-887), (63) the first man to glide with a wing he made, lived in Cordoba. Culturally, Cordoba was also a lively city. Averroes, the Aristotle of Islam, was not only a scientist, but also a philosopher, musician and mathematician. Many other artists and authors lived in Cordoba. The city had one of the largest libraries of its time, with at least 400,000 books. Ibn Hawqal (943-988) (64) describes the city of Cordoba: (65) “the largest city in Spain is Cordoba, which has no equivalent in the whole of the Maghreb, nor in Upper Mesopotamia, Syria or Egypt, for the size of its population, the extent of its surface area, the large space occupied by markets, the cleanliness of the premises, the architecture of the mosques, the large number of baths and caravanserais [... ] 'Abd al-Rahmān b. Muhammad founded a city to the west of Cordoba, which he called Zahrā' [...] The buildings there became dense and the popularity of this city grew. Muhammad founded a city to the wst of Cordoba, which he called Zahrā' [...] The buildings there became dense and the popularity of the city grew. So much so that the houses formed a continuous line between Cordoba and Zahrā". Among the famous scholarsthat lived in the city, we find: Averroes: called the Aristotle of Islam, Abu Al-Qasim or Abū al-Qāsim Khalaf ibn Abbās al-Zahrāwī, one of history's great surgeons, Abbas ibn Firnas: first man to glide. He discovered aerodynamics and invented corrective lenses, Azarchel or Al-Zarqali: astronomer, Ibn Muʿādh al-Jayyānī: mathematician, etc. The official language of al-Andalus was Arabic, and Arabic names are widespread, regardless of denomination. Andalusian Romance was spoken by most of the population. During the ninth century, bilingualism remained the norm in the cities. For Gabriel Martinez, (66) this may have been a process similar to that of immigrants, who continue to use their native language among themselves when the administration asks them for another language. Hebrew remained mastered as the Jewish liturgical language. Along with Aramaic, it was used in poetry. (67) Other uses of Hebrew and Aramaic in society are debated, but it seems certain that Jews, like the rest of society, spoke Andalusian Romance. Jews traveling to Constantinople after the Reconquista and to Alexandria also knew Greek. Latin remained the liturgical language of the Mozarabic clergy. Abd al-Rahman III (himself a great-grandson of the Navarran king Fortún Garcés) maintained good relations with Jews and Christians. His advisor and friend was Recemundo, bishop of Cordoba. The caliph took it to heart to convene councils himself. His physician was the Sephardic Jew Hasdaï ben Shatprut, both philosopher and poet, who translated into Arabic De materia medica, a manuscript by the Greek physician Dioscorides (of Anazarbe), sent by the Byzantine emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenet. Hasdaï encouraged other Jewish intellectuals, poets (68) and exegetes, whose manuscripts have come down to us (Jacob Al-Turtusi, Jeuda ben Sheshet, Dunash ben Labrat, Menahem ben Saruq, Moïse ben Hanoch, etc.). They communicated with the rabbinical center in Babylon, where the definitive version of the Talmud was being finalized under the aegis of Saadia Gaon. Al-Hakam II assembled a library of over 400,000 volumes. He sent his agents around the world in search of rare works. This work would have contributed to the transmission of the Greco-Roman legacy to the West. Cordoba had already been one of the most important cultural and intellectual centers in the Mediterranean world since the Roman (it was the birthplace of Seneca, among others) and Visigothic periods, and this tradition continued under the caliphate. Almanzor created a school of poetry in Cordoba, but purged al-Hakam's library of works he deemed suspect of heresy. Unprecedented blossoming of the Jewish community (69) The 10th century and the advent of Caliph Abd Ar-Rahman III (891-961) to power in al-Andalus represented an unprecedented opportunity for the Jewish community of the Iberian Peninsula, and more generally for Jews the world over. On the status of the Jews in Iberia, Hussam Abdullah Almujalli argues: (70) “Jews were welcome most time to live there under Islamic rule. The Prophet Muhammad gives Jews the political and cultural exactly as Muslims. They are also granted their freedom of religion. Thereafter, ‘Umar gives non-Muslim, including Jews their safety. The status of the Jews under Muslim rule is better than Goths during the Medieval Period. In Iberia, Muslims respect Jews. Abd al-Rahman III hired a Jewish man, Hasadai Ibn Shabrot. Samuel ibn Naghrillah is the most politically influential Jew in Muslims land in al-Andalus. Artistically and intellectually non-existent at the time of the Visigothic Christian power that preceded the era of Al-Andalus, the Hebrew community experienced an unprecedented blossoming within al-Andalus society, giving rise to the most refined poetry and the most striking philosophy.” Thanks to the Caliphate's policy of protecting religious minorities in accordance with the recommendations of Islam, Jews were not only protected in the same way as Christians and Muslims, but were also encouraged to give free rein to their beliefs and to all spiritual activities. (71) The eminent German-Jewish historian Heinrich Graëtz (1817-1891), the first to write a comprehensive history of the Jewish people from a Jewish perspective, highlights in his History of the Jews the extent to which his co-religionists were regarded and respected on an equal footing with Muslims in the brilliant Andalusia of the 10th century. (72) The Caliph Abd ar-Rahman III, a great believer in the principles of Islam, had elevated an orthodox rabbi, Hasdaï Ibn Shaprut, to the highest positions; he had given him the direction of finance, and made him one of the most important and highly regarded viziers in his kingdom. A man of faith and spirit, this brilliant Jewish physician took the opportunity, with the caliph's blessing, to reorganize the Jewish community, develop the Hebrew language and schools, and breathe new life into his community of faith, offering it a new calendar and setting new holidays. This was the golden age of Judaism (73) and the dazzling rebirth of a culture that had been extinct for centuries. The Jews, feeling completely secure and equal to the Muslims, embarked on economic and artistic endeavors, developed science and poetry, developed a passion for Arab culture and wrote almost exclusively in the language of the Qur’ân. Under al-Hakam II (915-976), Jews continued to prosper, enriching Andalusian culture with new contributions, and Joseph Isaac ibn Abitour (10th–11th century), (74) a formidable Talmudic scholar, man of spirit, author of liturgical poetry and familiar with the Arabic language, translated the Mishna (75) into Arabic at the Caliph's request. Under the various emirs and then caliphs, the Jews had long since become an important part of the Andalusian community, providing brilliant subjects for those in power, demonstrating excellence in the arts, medicine and literature; they were allowed to live among themselves, according to their choice, and without being excluded from the city. Their magnificent neighborhood was not rejected as a suburb of Cordoba. On the contrary, it was located right in the city center, adjacent to the great mosque and the caliphal palace. Judaism was at the height of its culture, thanks to talented philosophers, doctors, rabbis and poets, a Cordoba has played a central role in Jewish history. It was in this urban center, cradle of one of the most influential and prosperous communities of the Middle Ages. Cordoba: an anthology of architectural styles influenced by religion Religions have left their mark on Cordoba's architecture. The harmonious blend of these cultures has turned one of Spain's oldest cities into a veritable jewel. Today proud and serene, the “City of Spirit and Culture” was once a city of tolerance, fusion of cultures and harmony between peoples of different faiths: Muslims, Jews and Catholics. The old city of Cordoba, and in particular the Jewish quarter, has preserved the style of Andalusian villages. You can soak up the atmosphere as you stroll through the winding streets lined with churches, religious buildings, hermitages, convents and rich mansions that still retain a hint of Islam. Another reminder of Andalusia: sumptuous, and sparkling patios. (76) On the Islamic religious buildings Carmen González-Gutiérrez writes: (77) “The arrival of Islam to the Iberian Peninsula at the beginning of the 8th c. brought important changes to the urbanism of cities which contributed to turn the previous late-antique realities into medieval Islamic settlements. Among all the transformations that took place, the introduction of mosques and the reconfiguration of cities’ religioscapes is one of the most relevant. The processes through which the earliest mosques were first inserted in urban landscapes in al-Andalus are unclear, since so far there are no remains that can be undoubtedly dated before the Umayyad period. From that moment on, and alongside the Umayyad organization of the Andalusi state, the founding of mosques becomes clearer and traceable, and their urban, religious and political roles more evident. This contribution seeks to identify how and why mosques appeared in the Iberian Peninsula, how they (re)configured religious spaces in cities, and how they contributed to consolidate their significance through specific written and architectural narratives. This topic will be explored also seeking for parallels and connections in the Bilād al-Shām region.” Continuing along the banks of the Guadalquivir, the Puente Romano, with its sixteen arches, is a reminder that Cordoba was once an important Roman city, capital of Muslim Spain and court of the Western caliphs, it actually extended its influence from Rome to Africa. The mosque-cathedral (Mezquita) is considered the most important Islamic monument in the West, measuring 178 meters long, 128 wide and 10 high. It is the symbol of Arab domination of the peninsula and the splendor of the Caliphate. At the same time, the walls of the Mezquita house a Christian cathedral which, paradoxically, has enabled its survival. The Patio de los Naranjos, with its five fountains and the remains of the ablution’s basin is a wonderful vestige of the past and so is the building via the Puerta de las Palmas, which leads directly into the prayer room. Inside the temple, an impressive forest of granite columns, linked by two levels of red and white stone arches. Variations in light create a different atmosphere at every turn. The mihrâb, the sacred site of the mosque, has retained its original beauty, with its panels of Arabic calligraphy and Byzantine mosaics. During the Reconquest, this forest of columns underwent a number of transformations, going from 1,330 columns to 856 today, all aligned with each other, whatever the viewing angle. These upheavals were imposed by the transformation of the mosque into a cathedral, which began in 1523 (and lasted 243 years!). With great skill and intelligence, the architects succeeded in maintaining the mosque's axial nave without the main chapel, even though it is in the center, ever obscuring the mihrâb. Built in the 14th century, the small synagogue is one of Spain's most renowned; along with Toledo, it's the only one left from the period before the expulsion of the Jews. The historic Plaza del Porto is surrounded by the San Francisco Museum and cloister. It owes its name to a fountain crowned by a foal holding the Cordoba coat of arms in its front paws. Legend has it that this square inspired Cervantes to write his Don Quixote. (78) The Cathedral Mosque: a monument unique in the world The monumental ensemble of Cordoba's Cathedral Mosque is one of the most visited buildings in Spain, but above all one of the most symbolic in the history of the Iberian Peninsula. More than 1,000 years of history can be contemplated in its complexity, complementarity and rivalry. Two cultures, two civilizations, two religions seem to have found their harmonious expression in the Cathedral Mosque of Cordoba, one of the world's most singular monuments, a blend of Islamic and Christian arts. As such, Cordoba's Cathedral Mosque was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984. A forest of columns: This is what strikes visitors as soon as they enter Cordoba's cathedral mosque. Borrowing from Roman architectural traditions, these arches seem to have been inspired by the aqueducts of Merida and Segovia. Over 1,000 marble, jasper and granite columns, resting on 365 two-tone arches of white stone and red brick, are the true symbols of Cordoba's cathedral mosque. (79) Before the cathedral, the Cordoba Mosque: On the banks of the Guadalquivir, just off a superb Roman bridge, this mosque stands along the strategic Via Augusta, the main Roman road linking the Pyrenees to Cadiz. It is not the work of a single ruler, but of an entire dynasty, the Umayyads, who ruled al-Andalus between the 8th and 10th centuries. At the heart of the medieval city of Cordoba, the mosque not only brought the faithful together for prayer, but also served as a forum for teaching and dispensing justice. (80) Originally a Roman temple, the Visigothic Christian Basilica, which stood on the present site of the cathedral mosque when the Moors arrived in 711, was initially divided into two parts, one for Christians and the other for Muslims. But the expansion of Cordoba, which became Europe's largest city in the 10th century, led to the destruction of this basilica and the construction of the mosque from 786 onwards. In 848, a first extension to the mosque made it even more opulent: wooden ceilings with floral decorations, and sumptuous domes. A final extension took place in 987, commissioned by the chamberlain al-Mansour: 8 new naves and an enlarged courtyard. The edifice became the largest mosque in the world after Mecca! After the mosque, Cordoba Cathedral: With the Reconquista, Cordoba was retaken by Ferdinand III of Castile in 1236, and the mosque transformed into a Catholic cathedral: Our Lady of the Assumption Cathedral. It was given its first chapel after the destruction of several columns. In 1371, a magnificent royal chapel was built to house the tombs of Alfonso XI and Ferdinand IV. Over the centuries, several side chapels were added. In 1523, under Charles V, the present huge chapel was built in the center of Cordoba's cathedral mosque, a blend of flamboyant Gothic and Renaissance styles. The orange tree patio: Like all mosques, Cordoba's Cathedral Mosque has a courtyard where the faithful can perform their ritual ablutions. Transformed into an orange tree courtyard (Patio de Los Naranjos) since at least 1512. The mihrab of Cordoba's cathedral mosque: This is the most sacred place in the mosque, a niche that orients the faithful towards Mecca. Yet Cordoba's Mosque faces south, no doubt due to the rivalry between the Umayyads and the Abbasids. Richly decorated with vegetal or geometric mosaics and verses from the Qur’ân, Cordoba's mihrâb door inspired all later Western mosques. (81) The Tabernacle Chapel: A fully-fledged church where Catholic worship is celebrated daily today, this chapel was built in 1578. Its main attraction lies in the frescoes painted by Piedmontese artist César Arbasia from 1583.Its former minaret, badly damaged by earthquakes, was rebuilt and raised in Baroque style. It is possible to climb to the top of the tower, where the view of the mosque and the city of Cordoba is sublime. Community life under Islamic rule The invasion of Spain by Muslim armies in 711 was welcomed by the local Jews. In fact, by the time the Moors arrived on the Iberian Peninsula, there were no longer any registered Jews in the region, as they had all been killed, expelled or forcibly baptized. With the entry of the Moors, the secret Jews, known pejoratively as “Marranos”, took off their Christian masks and returned to openly living their Judaism. After the Muslim conquest, al-Andalus (82) began to welcome successive waves of Jews from Africa, the Orient and other parts of Europe. The Umayyad dynasty, which ended Visigoth rule and remained in power for almost three centuries, was responsible for the emergence of a sophisticated civilization. Cordoba was chosen as the capital of the Caliphate because of its strategic location and fertile land, ideal for agriculture. (83) By making it their capital, the Umayyad caliphs established the city and the region as a cultural and intellectual center that contrasted sharply with the obscurantism that prevailed in the rest of Christian-dominated Europe. Under the Umayyads, Jews, Christians and Muslims lived in harmony. And it was this environment of tolerance that enabled cultural, scientific and economic flourishing, and the creation of a rich cosmopolitan and secular culture. (84) Abd al-Rahman III was an Umayyad prince who ruled as Emir of Cordoba from 912 to 929 CE and later became Caliph of Cordoba, from 929 to 961 CE. His reign is remembered as the Islamic Golden Age of Spain and the Umayyad Caliphate, enacted by his proclamation of the second Umayyad Caliphate in 929 CE (Public domain) Considered more aesthetes than bureaucrats, the first Umayyad princes brought talented architects and scientists to their capital, founding schools and academies of learning. They built palaces and mosques, maintained hospitals and psychiatric treatment centers, giving Cordoba the profile that transformed it into one of the most beautiful and important cities on the entire European continent, rivaling other important centers of the Islamic Empire, such as Baghdad and Damascus. (85) In the first decades of the 10th century, a geopolitical event marked the beginning of a new era for Spanish Jews. In 929, Caliph Abd ar-Rahman III broke with the central caliphate and declared the Caliphate of Cordoba independent of Baghdad and of Muslim religious authority in the East. A liberal and tolerant ruler, both in his way of thinking and in his way of acting, he wanted to make his kingdom an important economic and cultural center. He knew that to achieve this goal, peace and harmony were essential. As a first step, he pacified the various warring Muslim factions in the peninsula. At the same time, he adopted conciliatory attitudes towards the minorities under his reign, notably the Christians, offering them, among other things, the opportunity to participate in state affairs and guaranteeing them religious freedom. (86)  Under his reign, Cordoba became the first urban and commercial economy to flourish in Europe after the demise of the Roman Empire. Passionate about philosophy, poetry, theology and the secular sciences, Abd ar-Rahman III encouraged and patronized knowledge in all forms and fields. Sparing no effort, he imported books from Baghdad and recruited sages, poets, philosophers, historians and musicians. He built an infrastructure of libraries, research and study centers, creating the intellectual tradition and educational system that would make Spain a center of reference for the next four centuries. The University of Cordoba had become the largest in the world. At the time, Cordoba had a population of around 400,700. Behind the austere facades of the houses, luxury bordered on opulence, with flower gardens and running water fountains. There were numerous libraries, with the Caliph's library boasting thousands of volumes and its own team of scholars and bookbinders. It also had schools of architecture and specialized centers for the translation of classical works into Arabic. Jews also participated in this period of economic prosperity and cultural effervescence. The Umayyad caliphs, particularly Abd-ar-Rahman III, regarded Jews as a useful and loyal part of the population, and treated them with dignity and respect. Free to pursue any cultural or economic activity, they entered various sectors of the economy, including commerce, finance and legal professions. They became famous doctors, illustrious poets, philosophers, astronomers and cartographers, as well as diplomats and generals. The relationship that the Jewish community established with the caliphs brought Sephardic Jews a pleasant and productive lifestyle. The residences of the wealthiest Jews maintained a high level of beauty and refinement. Before long, the caliphate attracted Jews from elsewhere. Faced with oppressive discrimination and forced conversions in the Byzantine Empire, as well as outbreaks of Islamic fundamentalism in other parts of the Muslim Empire, thousands of Jews settled in Cordoba, as well as in the cities of Granada, Seville, Lucena and Toledo. Andalusian Judaism, with Cordoba at its epicenter, entered the Golden Age of Jewish culture in the 10th century. (87) Hasdai Ibn Shaprut (915-970), physician, diplomat, one of Caliph Abd ar-Rahman III's most trusted confidants and head of Cordoba's Jewish community, was primarily responsible for the preparatory work that enabled Jewish culture to flourish. He was behind the founding of Cordoba's famous Yeshivah, which was later directed by Rabbi Moshe ben Hanoch. It was at this time that the ties binding Sephardic Jews to the Gaonic authorities in Babylon began to loosen, and Cordoba became independent of the religious and intellectual protectionism of the Babylonian community. The 10th and 11th centuries in Cordoba were marked by the proliferation of Jewish academic institutions. Astrologers, astronomers, calligraphers, philologists and philosophers formed the profile of a group for whom Jewish laws and traditions, as well as humanism and education, were essential. The Almohads' entry into Spain was delayed, but they were unable to prevent the fall of the Muslim kingdoms of Andalusia, in the face of the momentum of the Christian armies in their campaign to reconquer the region. In 1236, Cordoba was reconquered by the Christians, who came to regard the Jewish community as “a scandal against Christianity”. If Andalusia was the first place where Jews settled, it was also the first place from which they were expelled. The violent pogroms that marked the beginning of the end of Jewish life in Spain took place in Seville in 1391. It was also there that the Inquisition was established. Oil Painting of the interior of the Cordoba Mosque, 1880, Collection of Walters Art Museum, Baltimore, USA (Public domain photo) Conclusion: Restoring Cordoba's Convivencia  (90) Long before the fall of the Kingdom of Granada in 1492, the spirit of Cordoba evoked the cultural, social and intellectual Convivencia (91) that characterized relations between the three religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. (92) The cultural cross-fertilization of this period created the sumptuous repertoires of Hebrew and Judeo-Spanish romances and Arabo-Andalusian music, born of the triple heritage of Iberian Christian music, Afro-Berber music from the Maghreb and Arab tradition. (93) The Caliphate of Cordoba is still an example of living together, and a lesson given every day to the modern world, which still struggles to accept others and see them as an asset. (94) Religious minorities, respected for their faith, beliefs and history, are still an asset to their society. The Jews of al-Andalus had produced a literature and philosophy that would greatly enrich the culture of Andalusia. (95) Thanks to this artistic elevation, they had become, along with the Mozarabic Christians, an essential part of the dazzling mosaic that was the civilization of al-Andalus. So, it was under the Caliphate of Cordoba (and this was to change radically under other dynasties), that everyone was able to gain in this mutual respect, in this true path of brotherhood which is the ultimate goal of human societies. (96) Not everything ran smoothly during the two and a half centuries of the Umayyads' reign in Cordoba. There were intermittent eruptions which at times led to fears of the worst for the Abderrahman dynasty. Repression remained the only way to restore order to the territory. There were uprisings in Saragossa in 777, in the suburbs of Cordoba in 818, or the revolts of Toledo in 807, 812, 829, 837, Merida in 805, 813, 817, and 825. All this heralded a period of anarchy preceding a period of dissension fitna (discord) when the unity of the nation broke down and entire regions would escape the power of Cordoba. During the eight centuries of its existence, al-Andalus enjoyed flourishing periods of coexistence between different religious and cultural communities, thanks in particular to a policy of open Islam. (97,98) The 10th century, dominated by the Caliphate of Cordoba under the government of Abd ar-Rahman III, saw the emergence of a society where cultures could enter into perfect symbiosis, and where interaction between different religious and cultural communities was not only possible, but even encouraged at the highest levels of government. These encounters gave rise to a science and an art of living that would inspire mankind for centuries to come. (99) So, what made this period of conviviality possible? First, there was the desire to make Cordoba a capital capable of competing with Baghdad under the Abbasids, who initially wanted to annex al-Andalus. Secondly, the emirs of Cordoba and their caliphs knew that the real struggle was more cultural than military or political. This ambition led them to open up their society to all the right influences. The Jewish and Christian communities, who felt fully involved, played a major role in this cultural explosion. The debates, conducted in a spirit of tolerance, were of a high standard, and the interactions deep and fruitful. Men and women went to school in a society that opened hundreds of learning centers. Libraries flourished, hospitals multiplied, medicine constantly progressed, hygiene became everyone's business, while all other fields from astronomy to geography underwent unprecedented development. (100) In this way, it became possible to live together in a country where everyone could find his or her place, bringing their own wealth and contributions to the table. The Spirit of Cordoba represents a cultural blend, particularly through artistic expressions that merge Arabic, Hebrew, Castilian, and Judeo-Spanish influences. This concept is highlighted by performances, such as the musical tapestry created by artists combining these diverse traditions. (101) The Andalusian heritage of Cordoba, which reveals the plurality and complexity of the Mediterranean region is capable of opening up an era of dialogue, exchange and recognition of the Other today as it did in the past. It is a “living synthesis” of North and South, leading to the quest for a common meaning, that of “the thought of both shores’’ of Fabre, (102) which is in line with an intellectual perspective which invites us to conceive of the Mediterranean in both its unity and diversity; in other words, in a humanist dimension that guarantees the dignity, freedom and human dignity, and freedom and fulfilment. Let's not forget that Islam, as a religion and culture, only reached its apogee or golden age when it was open, tolerant and broad-minded. There are many examples of this in Andalusia. If Christianity teaches tolerance and love of others: “love your neighbour as yourself” (103), Islam, on the other hand, advocates tolerance, love, dialogue and recognition of the Other in his or her differences. The crises of the present and the future thus give rise to the revenge of the past, for according to the sociologist Edgar Morin, “if the future is lost and the present is sick, then there's nothing left to do but to take refuge in the past, that is, in the return to ethnic, national and religious roots”, (104) but this refuge must be for the purpose of understanding the present and building the future. Far from idealizing this Andalusian history, hope for the future of the Mediterranean region lies in the model offered by Cordoba in multicultural Andalusia, a model that represents a creative vision that takes on its full significance today, showing that civilizations and religions know how to adapt to universal aspirations: to freedom and recognition of the other and that they become more malleable through tolerance and dialogue. These human values can only lead to development for countries on both sides of the Mediterranean. This forward-looking approach is in line with that of the Mediterraneanist Jacques Berque, particularly in his famous appeal launched in 1995: “I call for Andalusia to be constantly what we carry within us both the heaped-up rubble and the tireless hope”. (105) Like Andalusia, Cordoba is Spain and much more: a melting pot of civilizations. Romans, Muslims, Jews, Catholics... all have left their mark on this city, where the three great monotheistic religions coexisted in peace. A symbol of the city, the mosque-cathedral is one of the most eloquent testimonies to Andalusian syncretism. Is the Spirit of Cordoba still possible today, that is the question?  (106) Only time can show. You can follow Professor Mohamed Chtatou on X: @Ayurinu Endnotes:  The 2019 Cordoba Forum, organized by the Paradigma Cordoba Foundation and with the support of the International Dialogue Centre (KAICIID), has concluded and reaffirmed the Forum’s commitment to dialogue and coexistence."Only with the repetition of this Forum and of the ideas and encounters it provides among people of different cultures will it be possible to develop what we have called the 'Spirit of Cordoba'", said Forum President Jacques Moreillon in the conclusions of this congress, in which "we have been able to see a very concrete dialogue theatre about convivence in a city that is a great example to address these types of issues". https://www.kaiciid.org/stories/news/cordoba-forum-consolidate-spirit-cordoba-and-promote-dialogue-and-coexistence   Chtatou, Mohamed. (2020). Al-Andalus: Glimpses of Human Coexistence and Compassion – Analysis. Eurasia Review. 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La Mezquita de Córdoba, San Isidoro deLeón y el debate doctrinal entre asociadores (cristianos) y agarenos (musulmanes). Islam i Cristiandat: civilitzacions al món medieval= Islam y Cristiandad: civilizaciones en el mundo medieval. -(Estudis de cultura escrita i visual; 2), 79-118.  Soravia, B. (2009). Al-Andalus au miroir du multiculturalisme. In M. Marín (éd.), Al-Andalus/España. Historiografías en contraste (1). Madrid : Casa de Velázquez. https://doi.org/10.4000/books.cvz.1404   Tamer, Georges. (2011). Averroism". In Encyclopaedia of Islam. Vol. 3. Leiden: Brill. Averroism is a philosophical movement named after the sixth/twelfth-century Andalusian philosopher Ibn Rushd (Averroes, d. 595/1198), which began in the thirteenth century among masters of arts at the University of Paris and continued through the seventeenth century.  Chtatou, Mohamed. (2020). Ibn 'Arabi and The Search for Humility and Purity – Analysis. Eurasia review. Retrieved from https://www.eurasiareview.com/06022020-ibn-arabi-and-the-search-for-humility-and-purity-analysis/   Toledo was a major center of translation during Muslim Spain, particularly known for translating classical works from Arabic into Latin. This translation movement played a vital role in preserving and transmitting ancient knowledge to Europe, especially after the earlier translations from Greek to Arabic. The city was instrumental in bridging cultures by facilitating the exchange of intellectual traditions. Cf. Penny, Ralph. (2002). A History Of The Spanish Language, 2 ed.(pp. 20–21). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.  Chtatou, Mohamed. (2021). Al-Andalus: Multiculturalism, Tolerance and Convivencia.  FUNCI. Retrieved from https://funci.org/al-andalus-multiculturalism-tolerance-and-convivencia/?lang=en  Adang, C.; & Fierro, M. (2002). A Jewish Reply to Ibn Hazm. Fierro, M. (Ed.) Judios y muslmanes en al-Andalus y el Maghreb. Contactos intelectuales / Judíos en tierras de Islam I  (pp. 179-209). Madrid : Casa de Velázquez.  Maimonidies, Moses. (1974). The Guide of the Perplexed, Volume 1. Translated and with an Introduction and Notes by Shlomo Pines. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Maimonidies, Moses. (1974). The Guide of the Perplexed, Volume 2. Translated and with an Introduction and Notes by Shlomo Pines. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.  Ibn Khaldun was a renowned Arab historian, philosopher, and sociologist born in 1332 in Tunis. He came from a prominent Andalusian family that had fled to North Africa due to the Reconquista. His most significant contribution is the "Muqaddimah," where he laid the foundations of historiography and social sciences, emphasizing the influence of environment and culture on societal development. He served at the court of the Moroccan Sultan and held various administrative roles during his lifetime.  King, D. A. (2018). The enigmatic orientation of the Great Mosque of Córdoba. Suhayl. International Journal for the History of the Exact and Natural Sciences in Islamic Civilisation, 33-111.  Hispano-Moorish art, also known as art hispano-mauresque, is an architectural and artistic style that emerged in the Islamic regions of the Iberian Peninsula during the Middle Ages. It combines elements of Arabic and Islamic aesthetics with local traditions, showcasing intricate decorations, geometric patterns, and elaborate tile work. Notable examples include metalwork, wood inlays, and a distinctive type of pottery known as Hispano-Moresque ware. Cf. Bernus-Taylor, Marthe. (1988). L’Art en terres d’islam: Les Premiers siècles. Les Grandes étapes de l’art. Paris: Desclée de Brouwer.   Moghul, Haroon. (2014). The Late Great Mosque of Córdoba: When Islam and the West Were One.  Tikkun, 29(1), 34-40. https://doi.org/10.1215/08879982-2394452  Arce, Fernando. (2015). La supuesta basílica de San Vicente en Córdoba: De mito histórico a obstinación historiográfica. Al-Qanṭara, 36, 11-44.  Avraham, T. A. (2024). The Resurrection of the Dead in Maimonides. A Jewish-Arabic Thinker between Religious Tradition and the Muslim Philosophy of his Time. Concilium, 2.  Averroes. (2001). Faith and Reason in Islam: Averroes' Exposition of Religious Arguments (Great Islamic Writings). Translated by Ibrahim Najjar. London: Oneworld Publications. The first translation available in English of a key work by the twelfth-century Muslim philosopher Averroes, which reveals his controversial views about reason, religion, and humankind’s relationship with God.  Averroes, also known as Ibn Rushd, is known for his commentary on Avicenna's Canon of Medicine and his philosophical works that attempt to reconcile Greek philosophy with Islamic thought. His approach emphasizes the use of reason and logic in understanding both philosophy and theology, moving away from strict mutazilism and advocating for a synthesis of rationality within a religious framework. Cf. Averroes. (1904). Accord de la religion et de la philosophie. Traduction française par Léon Gauthier. Alger : Imprimerie orientale Pierre Fontana.  Averroes sought to restore what he considered to be the original teachings of Aristotle, and opposed the Neoplatonist tendencies of early Muslim thinkers. He argued that philosophy was permissible in Islam, and even compulsory for certain elites. He also argued that Qur’anic texts should be interpreted allegorically if they seemed to contradict the conclusions drawn by reason and philosophy.  Thomas Aquinas ( was an Italian Dominican friar, priest, philosopher, and theologian who was a key figure in the development of scholasticism. He is recognized as one of the most important medieval philosophers and theologians and was canonized as a saint by Pope John XXII on July 18, 1323. His works, especially the "Summa Theologica," have had a lasting impact on Christian theology and philosophy.  Abu Hamid Muhammad ibn Muhammad Al-Ghazali, known in the West as Algazel, was a prominent Persian Muslim thinker, theologian, and philosopher who lived from 1058 to 1111. He is renowned for his works on Islamic philosophy and theology, contributing significantly to the understanding of Sufism and the relationship between philosophy and religion.  Anderson, G., & Rosser-Owen, M. (Eds.). (2007). Revisiting al-Andalus: Perspectives on the material culture of Islamic Iberia and beyond (Vol. 34). Leiden: Brill.  Sakrani, R. (2016). Convivencia: Reflections About its' Kulturbedeutung'and Rereading the Normative Histories of Living Together. Max Planck Institute for European Legal History. Research Paper Series No. 2016-02  Chtatou, Mohamed. (2024). ‘Convivencia’, What Is It All About? – Analysis. Eurasia Review. Retrieved from  https://www.eurasiareview.com/29072024-convivencia-what-is-it-all-about-analysis/   Perkins, J. A. (2022). Living in Convivencia: Intertwined Communities of Christians, Jews, and Muslims in Al-Andalus during the Caliphate of Córdoba (Doctoral dissertation, Indiana University).  Fuad, A. N. (2024). Inter-religious Coexistence in Cordoba During the Umayyad Period. International Journal of Religion, 5(11), 414-421.  Shiloah, A. (1991). Round Table IV: The Meeting of Christian, Jewish and Muslim Musical Cultures on the Iberian Peninsula (Before 1492). Acta Musicologica, 63(Fasc. 1), 14-20.  Ackerman, A. B. (2006). Maimonides. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, 55(4), 733-738.  Fuad, Ahmad Nur. (2024). Inter-religious Coexistence in Cordoba During the Umayyad Period. International Journal of Religion, 5(11), 414-421. https://doi.org/10.61707/8207kr87  Ceballos, M. (2020). The Politics and Aesthetics of Convivencia. In The Routledge Handbook of Muslim Iberia (pp. 659-680). London : Routledge.  Abate, M. (2015). Islamic Spain: Al-Andalus and the Three Cultures. In A. Classen (Ed.), Volume 2 (pp. 740-771). Berlin, München, Boston: De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110377637-003  CardaiIlac, Louis. (1992). Toledo, siglos XII-XIII: musulmanes, cristianos y judfos: la sabidurfa y la tolerancia. Madrid: Alianza.  Fuad, A. N. (2024). Inter-religious Coexistence in Cordoba During the Umayyad Period. International Journal of Religion, 5(11), 414-421.  Mazzoli-Guintard, Christine. (2008). In B. Arízaga Bolumbura & J. Á. Solórzano Telechea (Eds.) La convivencia en la ciudad medieval, Nájera. Encuentros Internacionales del Medievo, 2007 (pp. 237-261). Logroño : IER. Academia-edu, p. 253. Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/8176995/_Lieux_de_convivialit%C3%A9_et_formes_du_lien_social_dans_la_Cordoue_des_Xe_XIe_si%C3%A8cles_La_convivencia_en_la_ciudad_medieval_N%C3%A1jera_Encuentros_Internacionales_del_Medievo_2007_B_Ar%C3%ADzaga_Bolumbura_et_J_%C3%81_Sol%C3%B3rzano_Telechea_%C3%A9d_Logro%C3%B1o_IER_2008_p_237_261   Burchardt, M., & Michalowski, I. (2014). After integration: Islam, conviviality and contentious politics in Europe. In After Integration: Islam, Conviviality and Contentious Politics in Europe (pp. 3-16). Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden.  Lovat, T., Crotty, R., Lovat, T., & Crotty, R. (2015). The Historical Exemplar: La Convivencia. Reconciling Islam, Christianity and Judaism: Islam’s Special Role in Restoring Convivencia, 103-118.  Moses Ben-Maimon (Maimonides) was born in Cordoba in 1135, during the golden age of Al-Andalus under Islamic rule, Moses Ben-Maimon was a polymath who made important contributions to medicine, law, philosophy and Jewish religious thought. He wrote extensively on these subjects, making him one of Judaism's greatest intellectuals. His philosophical treatise “Guide to the Perplexed”, which blends Aristotelian philosophy with Hebrew scripture, is still highly influential today.  The Guide for the Perplexed is a philosophical work by Maimonides (also known as Rambam), aimed at reconciling Aristotelian philosophy with Rabbinical Jewish theology. It is structured as a letter to Maimonides' student and addresses complex theological and philosophical questions.  Hanafi, H. (2005). Maimonides’ Critique of the Mutakallimun in The Guide of the Perplexed. In G. Tamer (Ed.), The Trias of Maimonides / Die Trias des Maimonides: Jewish, Arabic, and Ancient Culture of Knowledge / Jüdische, arabische und antike Wissenskultur (pp. 267-288). Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110922653.267  Roth, R., & Philosemitisme. (2014). La biographie de Maïmonide mise à mal: Le Guide pour les égarés en jeu de l’oie. Pardès, (3), 295-301.  Ross Brann, Ross. (2002). Reflexiones sobre el árabe y la identidad literaria de los judíos de al-Andalus. In Judíos y musulmanes en al-Andalus y el Magreb (p. 13, pp. 13-28). Madrid: Casa Velasquez. Retrieved from https://books.openedition.org/cvz/2720?lang=fr  Pérez, J. (2018). III. Cordoue. In J. Pérez, Andalousie: Vérités et légendes (pp. 113-196). Paris: Tallandier.  Abbas ibn Firnas (810-887) was a notable inventor, physician, chemist, engineer, and aviator from the Umayyad Caliphate. He is best remembered for his early attempts at flight, specifically for creating a flying machine. His contributions spanned various fields, including poetry, music, physics, and astronomy.  Ibn Hawqal, also known as Mohammed Abul-Kassem ibn Hawqal, was a prominent Arab traveler, chronicler, and geographer from the 10th century. He is known for his thorough accounts of his travels and his geographical writings, which reflect the influence of Ptolemy's works. Ibn Hawqal is best known for his significant work titled "Surat al-Ard" (The Face of the Earth), which is a detailed geographical treatise. This work is a valuable resource for understanding the geography, economy, and culture of the Islamic world during the 10th century. In "Surat al-Ard," Ibn Hawqal describes various regions, trade routes, and cities, providing insights based on his own travels and the accounts of other travelers.  Ibn Hawqal. (2001). La configuration de la Terre (Kitab surat al-ard) (pp. 110-111); introduction and translation by J.-H. Kramers & G. Wiet, foreword by André Miquel. Paris : Maisonneuve et Larose.  Martinez-Gros, Gabriel. (2001). Arabe, Espagnol, Andalou dans l’histoire des musulmans d’Espagne de Reinhart Dozy.  Studia Islamica, 113-126.  Ross Brann, Ross. (2002). Op. cit.  Raymond P. Scheindlin, Raymond. (1994). Ibn Gabirol’s Religious Poetry and Sufi Poetry. Sefarad, 54, 110-142. Hellig, J. (1982). The Jewish Golden Age of Spain Revisited. Religion in Southern Africa, 3(2), 23-33.   Almujalli, H. A. (2014). Jewish Under Islamic Rule in the Middle Ages. Journal of Islamic Studies, 2(4), 31, 31-39. Retrieved from https://web.archive.org/web/20170809134947id_/http://jiscnet.com/journals/jisc/Vol_2_No_4_December_2014/4.pdf  Al-Khaldi, Khaled. (2012). Al-Yahud that Hukem al-Muslimin fi al-Andalus (Jewish under Muslim Rule in Iberia). Egypt: Rose Island Library.  Graetz, Heinrich, 1817-1891. (1882). Histoire des Juifs. Traduction de Lazare Wogue (1817-1897) et Moïse Bloch (1854-1901.) Paris : A. Levy. Graetz, Heinrich, 1817-1891; Bloch, Philipp, 1841-1923. (1891-98). History of the Jews. Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society of America. Heinrich Graëtz (1817-1891) was a German historian known for his work on Jewish history. He is best known for his comprehensive multi-volume work titled "History of the Jews," which traces the Jewish experience from ancient times to the modern era.  Chtatou, Mohamed. (2021). The Golden Age of Judaism in Al-Andalus (Part I) – Analysis. Eurasia Review. Retrieved from https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/the-golden-age-of-judaism-in-al-andalus-part-1/  Chtatou, Mohamed. (2021). The Golden Age of Judaism n Al-Andalus (Part II) – Analysis. Eurasia Review. Retrieved from https://www.eurasiareview.com/24112021-the-golden-age-of-judaism-in-al-andalus-part-ii-analysis/   Joseph Isaac ibn Abitour was a prominent Jewish figure during the reign of Al-Hakam II in the 10th century. He played an influential role in the cultural and scholarly advancements of Jewish life in Islamic Spain, particularly in Cordova. His contributions greatly enriched the Andalusian culture and he was involved in notable disputes regarding the rabbinate of Cordova.  The Mishna (Hebrew: משנה, “repetition”) is the first collection of oral Jewish law and thus of rabbinic literature. Compiled around the beginning of the 2nd century CE by Judah Hanassi, it is, apart from a few Aramaic verses, written in its own Hebrew, and records the opinions, polemics and eventual legal resolutions of the Tannaim (“Repeaters”) on the prescriptions of the Torah, organized thematically into six orders subdivided into 63 treatises (massekhtot, sing. massekhet). The term Mishna refers both to the book containing these two thousand or so articles - the Mishna - and to the articles themselves - a mishna or mishnayot. The Talmuds also use the name mishnayot to refer to articles that were not included in the Mishna but in parallel compilations, collectively called braïtot (“external [traditions]”). The exposition of mishnayot and their study (guemara) form the corpus of the Talmudim. Cf. Cohen, Shaye J. D.; Goldenberg, Robert & Lapin, Hayim (eds.). (2022). The Oxford Annotated Mishnah: A New Translation of the Mishnah with Introductions and Notes. New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press.  González-Gutiérrez, Carmen. (2023). Religious Buildings in Early al-Andalus: Origins, Consolidation and Prevalence in Urban Contexts. Religions, 14(11): 1375. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14111375  Ibid  Camacho, Cristina, & Rafael Valera. (2018). Espacios domésticos en los arrabales occidentales de “Qurtuba”: Tipos de viviendas, análisis y reconstrucción. Antiquitas, 31, 59-92.  Martínez Capdevila, P. (2023). Representing the unrepresentable: the Mosque of Córdoba and the ideal Islamic temple. The Journal of Architecture, 28(8), 1409-1441. https://doi.org/10.1080/13602365.2023.2301656   Gulzar Haider, Gulzar. (1995). Faith is the Architect: Reflections on the Mosque.  Architecture and Comportment/Architecture & Behavior, 11(3/4), 243-248.   Moneo, Rafael. (1985). La vida de los edificios: Las ampliaciones de la mezquita de Córdoba. Arquitectura, 256, 26-36. Retrieved from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13602365.2023.2301656#d1e405   Aparicio, M. C. (2019). Muslim Understandings of Sephardic Exceptionalism in Christian Iberia. Frankel Institute Annual, 2019, 13-15.  Fletcher, Richard. (1993). Moorish Spain (pp. 91–92). Berkeley: University of California Press.   Renard, J. (2020). Crossing confessional boundaries: exemplary lives in Jewish, Christian, and Islamic traditions. Oakland, California : University of California Press.  Lane-Poole, Stanley. (1967). The Moors in Spain (pp. 86–95). Beirut: Khayats.  Safran, J. M. (2019). Cultural memories of the conquest of al-Andalus between the ninth and twelfth centuries, CE. Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies, 11(3), 359-377.  Watt, Montgomery (1967). A History of Islamic Spain. Edinburgh: University Press.  Gampel, Benjamin R. (2016). Anti-Jewish Riots in the Crown of Aragon and the Royal Response, 1391–1392 (pp. 271–314). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.  The 1391 pogroms in Spain were a series of violent anti-Jewish riots that occurred primarily in the cities of Seville and Córdoba. These massacres were instigated by a combination of social unrest, religious zeal, and economic factors, leading to the deaths of thousands of Jews and the destruction of many Jewish communities. The events marked a significant turning point in Jewish history in Spain, resulting in mass conversions to Christianity and the eventual decline of Jewish life in the region.  Wolf, K. B. (2009). Convivencia in Medieval Spain: a Brief History of an Idea. Religion Compass, 3(1), 72-85. DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8171.2008.00119.x   Kenneth Baxter Wolf's 2009 article "Convivencia in Medieval Spain: A Brief History of an Idea," published in Religion Compass, discusses the concept of Convivencia, which refers to the coexistence of Christian, Muslim, and Jewish communities in medieval Spain. The article explores the cultural interactions and shared experiences among these groups, highlighting the significance of Convivencia in shaping the historical and cultural landscape of Spain during that period.  For Christine Mazzoli-Guintard, the word Convivencia is magical: ''The language of Cervantes possesses a word that is magical in its evocative power...''. Cf. Mazzoli-Guintard, Christine. (2008). 0p. Cit. p. 229  Robinson, C. (2009). [Review of The Arts of Intimacy: Christians, Jews, and Muslims in the Making of Castilian Culture, by J. D. Dodds, M. R. Menocal, & A. K. Balbale]. The Art Bulletin, 91(3), 369–373. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40645513  Albarrán, J. (2023). Los cristianos en el emirato y el califato de Córdoba, y la creación de una comunidad andalusí multiconfesional. In El monacato cristiano en la España musulmana (pp. 11-40). Aguilar de Campoo, Palencia: Fundación Santa María la Real.  Reboiras, F. D. (2017). Ramon Llull, a bridge among Christian, Jewish and Islamic cultures. Contributions to science, 12(1), 63-70.  John Tolan, John. (2013). Au-delà des mythes de la coexistence interreligieuse : contacts et frictions quotidiens d’après des sources juridiques de l’Espagne médiévale. Cahiers de la Méditerranée. Retrieved from   http://journals.openedition.org/cdlm/6874; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4000/cdlm.6874   Hernández, D. A. (2006). Pluralismo y Convivencia. Anuario de la Facultad de Derecho, 24, 73-93  Glick, Thomas F.  (1979). Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages. Princeton: Princeton University Press. There is also a Spanish translation (1991). Cristianos y musulmanes en la España medieval (711-1259). Madrid: Alianza; Tand, D. L. (1992). Convivencia: an Introductory Note. In Vivian B. Mann, Thomas F. Glick, & Jerrilynn Denise Dodds (Eds.). Convivencia: Jews, Muslims, and Christians in Medieval Spain (pp. 1-9). New York City: G. Braziller.  Karabell, Z. (2007). Peace be upon you: The story of Muslim, Christian, and Jewish Coexistence. New York City: Alfred A. Knopf.  Mann, V.; T Glick, T.; &  Dodds, J. (Eds.). (1992). Convivencia: Jews, Muslims, and Christians in Medieval Spain. New York City: George Braziller.  Davis-Secord, S., Vicéns, B., & Vose, R. (Eds.). (2021). Interfaith Relationships and Perceptions of the Other in the Medieval Mediterranean: Essays in Memory of Olivia Remie Constable. London: Springer Nature.  Agüera, E.; Vivo, J.; Monterde, J. G.; Mir, F.; Robina, A.; Galistero, M.; ... & Córdoba, R. (2005). Relaciones entre el Islam y Occidente. Al-Andalus, 39-58.  Fabre, T. (1995). Penser la Méditerranée des deux rives, L’héritage andalou. La Tour d'Aigues : éd. Laube.  Hadri, M. (1996). Dialogue de civilisations en Méditerranée (p. 114). Centre d’études Méditerranéennes et Internationales. Première rencontre internationale de dialogue culturel Nord-Sud, Tozeur 12-15. Tunis : éd. CETIMA- l’Or du temps.  Morin, E. (1998). Penser la Méditerranée et méditerranéiser la pensée. Confluences Méditerranée, 28, 5.  Berque, Jacques. (1999). Mémoires des deux rives. Paris : Editions du Seuil.  David, M.; & Muñoz-Basols, J. (2012). LEARNING FROM THE PAST: THE LEGACY OF MEDIEVAL IBERIA FOR 21ST CENTURY EDUCATION. Teoría de la Educación. Educación y Cultura en la Sociedad de la Información, 13(1), 334-367